Bioplastics and Bio-Based Barrier Coatings on Paper: Eco-Friendly Development for Food Packaging

Bioplastics and Bio-Based Barrier Coatings on Paper: Eco-Friendly Development for Food Packaging

Umme Habiba, Misba Khan, & Roohi*

Department of Bioengineering Integral University,

Lucknow, India- 226026 Corresponding author Email: roohi0607@gmail.com

Abstract

The global packaging industry is shifting toward sustainable alternatives to petroleum-based plastics. Bioplastics from renewable resources like corn-starch, sugarcane, and microbes offer biodegradability and reduced carbon footprints. Materials such as PLA, PHA, and PBS are suitable for food and pharmaceutical packaging. Bio-based coatings on paper enhance moisture and oxygen barriers while remaining recyclable. Biopolymers like chitosan, cellulose, and starch can replace synthetic coatings that hinder biodegradability. Challenges remain in mechanical strength, production scalability, and cost. However, advancements in technology and growing eco-consciousness among industries and consumers will drive adoption, reducing plastic waste and promoting a circular, eco-friendly packaging economy.

KeywordsBiodegradable packaging; Renewable resources; Bioplastics; Bio-based coating; Food and Pharmaceutical packaging

1. Introduction

   Over the past few years, concern about the environment has prompted people everywhere to rethink how much we depend on single-use plastics made from petroleum. Despite making life easier and being inexpensive, these products are contributing in a big way to pollution and harming the environment. Most people notice plastic waste in landfills and oceans, where it remains undisturbed for hundreds of years. Degraded plastic produces microplastics that end up in food chains and are dangerous for both nature and human health[1]. Each year, millions of tons of plastic are created as waste, which is a huge problem. A lot of this waste is made up of packaging that is used quickly and thrown away soon after. While packaging is crucial for protecting goods and global commerce, it is also responsible for much of the worlds plastic use. Under growing pressure from environmentalists, lawmakers, and consumers, more attention is now given to finding sustainable ways to package our goods[2].

   Sustainable packaging is about using and designing materials to reduce the products impact on nature during its whole life. To achieve it, businesses should cut back on dangerous substances, strive to make products recyclable or biodegradable, and use resources more effectively[3]. Such alternatives are required because traditional plastic packaging has many limitations and can cause lasting problems.Using fossil fuels to produce petroleum- based plastics leads to major carbon emissions and plays a big role in making the world warmer. Besides, most waste bags are not biodegradable and

   can take a very long time to break down in the environment. Though recycling programs are offered, only a small number of plastics can be recycled since much is contaminated, and the recycled version faces other difficulties and low quality. Therefore, the large majority of plastic waste winds up being burned, buried, or released outside.

   Further, plastic waste affects the health of ecosystems found in lakes, oceans, and land. The ingestion or entanglement of plastic by marine creatures can lead to either injury or death. Land animals and birds suffer from similar complications. Researchers have also discovered recently that microplastics are found in tap water, salt made for daily use, and even in the placenta, which could cause major health concerns. For this reason, it is clear that we urgently need to move toward safer, cleaner options that are in line with sustainable development goals[4].

   Using eco-friendly packaging is being viewed as crucial by both scientists and industries, as well as by the public. Biodegradable and compostable materials are under consideration as substitutes for regular plastics. Examples of these polymers are made from renewable resources; among them are starch, cellulose, chitosan, polylactic acid (PLA), and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). Bioplastic materials convert to non-toxic materials given the needed environmental factors, reducing their effect on the environment.

   As well as being biodegradable, the carbon footprint caused by manufacturing and deliveries is a focus in sustainable packaging. If businesses switch to plant-based materials and make packaging smaller, there will be fewer greenhouse gas emissions. Also, industries are launching reusable or refillable containers so that customers

   can bring back, reuse, and refill them instead of throwing them away[5].

   When it comes to sustainable packaging, using waste material and residues is also considered an innovation. Multiple brands are now using packaging created from materials such as mushroom mycelium, sugarcane bagasse, and coconut husks. They find a useful way for by- products to be reused and eventually degrade on their own, thereby dealing with the problems of waste and finding the materials.

   Sustainable packaging is promoted mainly through influencing what customers expect and how they act. Environmental concerns are now higher on consumers minds than in the past. More and more, people want supply chains to be transparent and are buying from companies that adopt green policies. For this reason, companies are realizing that being sustainable improves their competitiveness in the market. Companies that choose eco-friendly packaging are more likely to be trusted and remembered by customers[6].

   Many governments and regulatory institutions worldwide are making progress in this area. More places are implementing bans on single-use plastics, adopting EPR laws, and using eco-labeling standards. These policies influence the packaging industry to both develop and improve innovations. Incentives like helping pay for eco-friendly products and taxing companies that use a lot of plastic are encouraging businesses to choose the environment more.

   Still, making packaging sustainable can face some difficulties. A lot of bioplastics break down slowly, which usually happens only with certain procedures, but those are rare in current landfills. Because of the higher cost for sustainable materials compared to plastics, many industries find it hard

   to use them right now. Thanks to endless innovation and research, sustainable packaging is getting easier and more accessible.Shared effort between scientists, businesses, and government is crucial for speedy progress in sustainable packaging. Research investment helps to enhance the effectiveness, price, and production potential of biodegradable materials. Educational campaigns can tell people about the right ways to throw away waste and the environmental benefits of choosing sustainable goods.

   Overall, since petroleum-based plastics have caused environmental issues, companies now need sustainable ways to package their goods. The main idea is to reimagine all the stages of packaging, starting with getting the raw materials and going through making, using, and discarding. Choosing biodegradable materials, reducing waste, and supporting circular economy ideas will help us form a future where packaging preserves both our goods and our planet. Having sustainable packaging isnt simply a preference; its now required for the health of the environment and a long future ahead[7].

2. Bioplastics: Sources and Applications

   Today, as environmental issues gain importance in industry and society, finding sustainable materials has become a top priority. In this area, the introduction of boplastics as a type of biodegradable and bio-based plastic from sources that grow easily is very significant. They promise to make us less dependent on fossil fuels, reduce what packaging does to nature, and handle the massive plastic waste found today (Fig. 1). The past two decades have seen swift improvements in bioplastic research, mainly applied to the areas of food and pharmaceutical packaging[8].

   1. Renewable Feedstocks: The Green Foundations

      As bio-based plastics are made from natural feedstocks instead of oil, they differ greatly from conventional plastics. Corn-starch, sugarcane, and microorganisms are usually included as feedstocks, and every source brings something different to the process.

      Fig. 1. Lifecycle of bioplastics in a circular bioeconomy from renewable resource extraction to sustainable end-of-life disposal through biodegradation and composting

      1. Cornstarch

         Cornstarch is one of the most common raw materials in bioplastics, which are mainly used to create polylactic acid (PLA). Corn carbohydrates are transformed into glucose, which bacteria then ferment to make lactic acid, the main ingredient of PLA. Biofuels made from corn draw attention due to their common availability and existing crop farming facilities. Still, it creates issues around how food land should be used versus fuel and other purposes[9].

      2. Sugarcane

         Sugarcane is an important source, mainly found in Brazil. It is possible to efficiently make ethanol and

         lactic acid using sucrose produced from sugarcane in fermentation. PLA from sugarcane releases much less greenhouse gas than when using oil. In addition, bagasse (the material left after extracting sugarcane juice) is being examined to produce cellulose-based bioplastics, which improves resource efficiency [10].

      3. Microbialsources

      Microbes are some of the most versatile and responsible sources to use in making bioplastics. Some bacteria, i.e., Cupriavidus necator and Bacillus subtilis, could produce polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) inside their cells as energy deposits. Being cultivated with industrial waste, glycerol, or agro residues, the process is both environmentally friendly and adds value to resources that would otherwise be wasted. A study in Nature Reviews Materials showed how genetic engineering lets bacteria make PHAs with unique properties suitable for medicines and bio- packaging[11].

   2. Key Bioplastics Shaping a Sustainable Future: PLA, PHA, and PBS

      1. Polylactic Acid (PLA)

         PLA is very likely the bioplastic that has achieved the highest success in the market. Made mainly from cornstarch or sugarcane, PLA can break down using industrial composting and offers similar strength to PET plastic. It is clear and tough and can make use of current plastic manufacturing tools, and that makes it very popular in packaging. PLA is broken down by hydrolysis to lactic acid, which is then absorbed by microbes. Even so, a temperature of over 58°C and humid conditions are needed, so it does not break down well in nature[5]. Even so, it is widely used in rigid containers, disposable cutlery, films, and blister packs, mainly in places concerned about the environment.Food

         stored in PLA-based packaging was shown to be of the same high quality as in PET, and it can be safely disposed of by composting, in contrast to PET, which reduces its environmental impact. Alternatively, PLA can be combined with different biopolymers or covered with bioactive ingredients for better barrier performance[12].

      2. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)

         PHAs refer to a group of different polyesters that are made by microbes. While PLA gets its material from chemical synthesis, PHAs are produced by the action of bacteria. Because they break down in marine, soil, and composting environments, they are perfect for combating ocean plastic pollution.With over 150 variations of PHA identified, it becomes possible to tailor both the mechanical and thermal features of these materials. Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and polyhydroxyvalerate (PHV) are the most frequent types. PHAs are safe to use with living tissue, so they work well in sutures, implants, and for delivering medicines[13].

         Waste cooking oil and agro waste can be useful as affordable carbon sources for PHA production. It brings down the cost of making biofuels and well supports the circular bioeconomy.Despite being highly functional, it is more expensive to manufacture PHAs right now than to make PLA or typical plastics. Fortunately, recent advances in microbial engineering and more powerful bioreactors have made the result more affordable over time [14].

      3. Polybutylene succinate (PBS)

         PBS is made from succinic acid and 1,4-butanediol, both sources that can be made renewably, but it is less well-known than other bioplastics. PBS has higher flexibility and thermal stability than PLA, and it biodegrades under both aerobic and

         anaerobic circumstances.PBS is very useful because it behaves much like polyethylene and polypropylene when used in making flexible films. With starch and PLA, PP can make a formulation tailored to requested strength and barrier qualities[15].

         Pedroni et al. [16] found that PBS-based films provided good protection from oxygen and water in packaging and could break down in soil over a 6- month period. In the medicine industry, PBS is looked at for both capsule shells and blister packaging, helping meet the rising demand for eco- friendly healthcare materials.

   3. Use in food and pharmaceutical packaging

      1. Food Packaging

         Bioplastics like PLA and PBS are thoroughly researched and used in the food industry. They find their way into cutlery, trays, films, bags, and containers. Maintaining protection from moisture, oxygen, and light is one of the main difficulties in food packaging. PLAs clarity and strong structure often do not meet expectations when it comes to protecting from gas leakage (Table 1). So, new studies are searching for solutions using PLA-PHA, PLA-starch blends, or bio-coatings made of essential oils or nanoparticles[17].

         Coating PLA film with chitosan and oregano oil enhanced its ability to prevent spoilage in fresh produce for 35 days longer. Additionally, adding cellulose nanocrystals to PBS-based films has improved both the durability and water resistance packaging

         of the material.They can be put in the same compost pile, as food waste and bioplastic packets can be composted together. Nonetheless, the lack of industrial composting facilities needed for the job means that many regions have difficulty handling these materials [18].

      2. Pharmaceutical Packaging

   The packaging for pharmaceutical products must be sterile, stable, and protective, and bioplastics are becoming better at fulfilling these functions. Capsules, blister packs, and drug delivery films have all been made with PLA and PHA. Because these polymers are not toxic and are acceptable for the body, they work well in controlled release devices that offer a slow release of drugs inside the body. The use of PHA in implantable devices involves the polymer matrix degrading harmlessly after delivering the medicine (Table 1). But PLA is commonly found in sutures that dissolve, microcapsules, and transdermal patches.Using biodegradable plastic packaging, such as cartons and trays, has become popular for firms aiming to cut their supply chain pollution. Foils laminated with PLA and paperboards coated with PBS provide alternative, environmentally friendly packaging to the traditional type based on petroleum[19].

   Table 1. Sources and key applications of major bioplastics in food and pharmaceutical

   Bioplastics

   Source/p>

   Application in Food Packaging

   Application in Pharmaceutical Packaging

   References

   PLA (Polylactic Acid)	Corn starch, sugarcane	Films, trays, disposable cups, containers	Blister packs, implantable devices, capsule shells	[20]
   PHA (Polyhydroxyalkanoates)	Bacterial fermentation of sugars/oils	Compostable bags, rigid packaging, coatings	Drug delivery systems, tissue engineering scaffolds	[21]
   PBS (Polybutylene Succinate)	Succinic acid + 1,4-butanediol (bio-based)	Flexible films, thermoformed containers	Biodegradable blister packaging, encapsulation	[22]
   Starch-Based Plastics	Corn, potato, tapioca starch	Wrapping films, food trays, bags	Tablet binders, capsule coatings	[23]
   Cellulose Derivatives	Wood pulp, cotton	Edible films, biodegradable wraps, coatings	Film-forming agent, controlled drug release	[24]
   Chitosan	Crustacean shells (chitin)	Antimicrobial films and coatings, preservation layers	Wound healing films, drug carriers, bioadhesive films	[25]
   Protein-Based Plastics (e.g., zein, casein)	Corn (zein), milk (casein)	Edible coatings, films for fruits and cheese	Biocompatible capsules, wound healing materials	[26]
   PCL (Polycaprolactone)	Petroleum- derived but biodegradable	Blends with starch for packaging films	Long-term drug release, implants	[27]
   PBAT (Polybutylene Adipate Terephthalate)	Bio-based/adipic acid + terephthalic acid	Compostable bags, cling films, laminates	Packaging for medical disposables, blend in pharmaceutical films	[28]
   Alginate-Based Plastics	Brown seaweed (alginic acid)	Edible films, moisture barrier coatings	Controlled drug release, encapsulation of sensitive ingredients	[29]

3. Bio-Based Coatings on Paper: Enhancing Barrier Properties for Sustainable Packaging

   Recently, there has been an increase in efforts to use sustainable packaging, caused by a rise in understanding environmental problems and the

   urgent requirement to use less plastic and other oil- based materials. New bio-based coatings applied to paper show promise, as they are renewable and biodegradable compared to traditional plastic or petroleum coatings. With these coatings, paper becomes more functional and helps to produce environmentally friendly and recyclable packages[30].

   Paper itself can easily be recycled and is biodegradable. Its high permeability and attraction to water make it poor at blocking moisture, oil, gases, and microbes needed for food,pharmaceutical, and industrial products. A barrier layer made up of polymers is applied to paper to handle these drawbacks. Typically, polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) are used for this, yet they reduce papers ability to be recycled or composted. Consequently, researchers are investigating the use of bio-based materials, including chitosan, cellulose derivatives, and starch-based polymers, because they are both biodegradable and have several useful features[31].

   1. Functional Roles of Bio-Based Coatings in Barrier Properties

      A coatings purpose on paper is mainly to protect the material from the entry or exit of water, gases, oils, and microbes. Each kind of bio-based coating has unique benefits for paper, as its performance depends on the molecules it contains, how it dries onto the paper, and how these coating molecules interact with paper fibres[30].

      1. Water Vapor and Moisture Resistance

         A main problem with paper is that it does not resist water vapor well. The addition of hydrophobic modified starch or a chitosan-lipid blend forms a protective film, preventing much water vapor movement through the paper. Even if these coatings

         are not as water resistant as polyethylene, they still protect most dry and semi-moist packages from moisture[32].

      2. Oxygen and Gas Barrier

         Keeping food away from air prevents both spoilage and oxidation. Cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and chitosan have complex forms that make it difficult for gases to diffuse inside. Du et al. [33] which reported a 90% cut in oxygen permeation for chitosan-coated paper, which makes it useful for food packaging.

      3. Oil and Grease Resistance

         Food that comes in ready-to-eat or fast-food packaging needs to be oil-resistant. Cationic starch, alginate, and chitosan blends and wax-starch emulsions act as a cover that keeps lipids outside the starch granules. Conventional fluorinated coatings are not safe for use with food, but bio- based coatings are both non-toxic and suitable for safe use with food directly[34].

      4. Antimicrobial and Active Properties

         Several bio-based coatings have properties that naturally guard against harmful microbes. Chitosan is an example made from crustacean shell chitin and is recognized for its ability to stop the growth of bacteria and fungi. Using essential oils in cellulose or starch films is being examined as a method to make eco-friendly materials that extend the life of food[30].

      5. Structural and Mechanical Strength

         Applying bio-based coatings to paper enhances its strength, ability to keep its shape when folded, and resistance to being torn. This is most important in cases involving paperboards and flexible packaging[35].

   2. Biodegradable Coating Agents in Sustainable Packaging

      1. Chitosan

         Chitosan is growing in popularity as a bio-coating material for paper due to being naturally sourced, easily biodegradable, and finding many useful applications. Many people make transparent and flexible films from chitosan, and these films adhere well to paper, forming an unbroken barrier on the surface. An important quality of this material is that it keeps oxygen and gas away from foods, avoiding food spoilage due to oxidation. Also, chitosan coatings have some resistance to water vapor and oil, which means they can be used for food items that have either. Thanks to its ability to stop bacteria and fungi from growing, coating materials add extra days to the products lifespan. Because chitosan paper is safe and non-toxic, it makes a good material for environment-friendly, active packaging[36]. Combining chitosan with beeswax, essential oils, or cellulose nanocrystals has been proven to enhance its ability to keep moisture out and improve its toughness. In addition, chitosan coatings are suitable for standard paper recycling, unlike those made from materials like polyethylene. While its use in industry remains limited by its cost and ingrained water sensitivity, research efforts and mixed techniques are increasing its performance and reducing its price. For this reason, chitosan stands out as a good alternative for eco-friendly food packaging that uses paper[37].

      2. Cellulose

         Cellulose, the most abundant natural polymer, is widely used in bio-based paper coatings. Due to its being renewable, biodegadable, and able to form into a solid film. Cellulose and its derivatives can improve the barriers, strength, and surface quality

         of paper by being applied as coatings. Reducing how much oxygen food processes can affect is key to food quality and its life on the shelf, and these coatings are very helpful for this. Although native cellulose easily absorbs water, making it hydrophobic or adding similar materials can enhance its ability to resist water. The high elongation and crystallinity of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) result in better reinforcement and network formation that improves strength and gas protection. Since cellulose coatings are safe to use with foods, recyclable with paper, and free of toxins, they are excellent for sustainable packaging. Also, starch and chitosan, along with active substances like antioxidants or antimicrobials, may be blended with these coatings to make the packaging smarter or more active. Although cellulose can be influenced by changes in humidity, it is still a top choice in green packaging because it is plentiful, flexible, and works well with what we already make from paper[38].

      3. Starch

         Starch has been chosen as a common and cheap bio-based material for paper coating due to its wide availability, renewability, and the films it can form. Natural sources such as corn, potatoes, rice, or tapioca supply starch, which can then be processed to form coatings that improve how paper looks and works. When used as a coating, starch increases dry strength and makes the material smoother. However, when chemically modified by processes like oxidation, esterification, or crosslinking, it offers better water resistance and allows the material to bend. While native starch takes in moisture easily, blending it with waxes, fatty acids, or other biodegradable polymers makes it much more resistant to moisture and grease. Because they are biodegradable, non-toxic, and safe for food

         contact, starch-based coatings work well in sustainable food packaging. Because they are recyclable and compostable, they fit well within the goals of a circular economy[30]. Additionally, by incorporating active compounds into starch, it is possible to develop functional or active packaging materials. On the other hand, some challenges, such as being fragile, sensitive to humidity, and not resisting much heat, require making the coating better to match the results of typical plastic coatings. Notwithstanding these problems, starch is still a valuable and greener choice for boosting the performance of paper-based packaging[39].

   3. Comparison of Synthetic Coatings vs. Biobased Coatings

      Synthetic coatings, made mostly from petroleum- based materials like polyethylene, polypropylene, and PET, are commonly used because they're strong and last a long time. But these coatings don't break down naturally and add to pollution, plus they contribute to the microplastic problem and parameters

      rely on fossil fuels. In contrast, bio-based coatings come from renewable sources like plant materials and proteins. They break down more easily, have a smaller environmental impact, and can even have extra benefits like fighting bacteria. These coatings fit well with the idea of a circular economy and what consumers want in sustainable products [30]. Despite being better for the environment, bio-based coatings can struggle with issues like lower water resistance and durability compared to synthetic ones. Still, improvements in technology are helping to make them more effective. While synthetic coatings are still the go-to because they're scalable and cheaper, growing environmental concerns are pushing for more bio-based options (Table 2). As sustainability becomes increasingly important, bio- based coatings are looking like a good choice, especially in packaging and products that people use every day [31].

      Table 2. Comparative overview of synthetic coatings and biobased coatings on different

      Parameters	Synthetic Coatings	Bio-based Coatings	References
      Origin	Fossil fuel-based polymers (e.g., PE, PP, PVOH, EVOH)	Renewable sources (e.g., chitosan, starch, cellulose)	[40]
      Biodegradability	Non-biodegradable	Biodegradable and compostable (under suitable conditions)	[41]
      Barrier to Water Vapour	Excellent	Moderate; can be improved with waxes/lipids/nanoparticles	[30]
      Barrier to Oxygen & Gases	Excellent (especially EVOH)	Good (especially chitosan, cellulose nanocrystals)	[35]
      Grease/ Oil Resistance	High (often enhanced with fluorochemicals)	Moderate to high (e.g., chitosan, alginate, starch-fatty acid blends)	[42]
      Antimicrobial Properties	None (unless additives are used)	Intrinsic in chitosan; can be enhanced with essential oils	[43]
      Recyclability with paper	Difficult (polymer layers hinder pulping	Generally compatible with recycling processes	[44]

      	process)
      Toxicity	May release microplastics or contain harmful additives	Non-toxic, food-safe, and edible in some cases	[45]
      Environmental Impact	High carbon footprint, contributes to long- term pollution	Low carbon footprint, environmentally friendly	[31]
      Scalability	Well-established industrial methods (extrusion, lamination)	Advancing; newer methods include spray-coating, solvent-free casting	[46]
      Compostability	Not compostable	Compostable in industrial or home compost settings	[42]
      Regular Acceptance	Facing increasing restrictions (e.g., plastic bans)	Favorable regulatory and consumer perception	[30]
      Cost	Economical, mature supply chains	Relatively higher (but decreasing with scale and innovation)	[47]
      Uses	Widely used in liquid cartons, food wrappers, pharmaceutical packs	Ideal for dry foods, fresh produce, bakery items, and active packaging	[47]
      Example	Polyethylene (PE), Polypropylene (PP), PVOH, EVOH	Chitosan, Cellulose, Carboxymethyl Cellulose, Starch Derivatives	[48]

4. Challenges in Adoption and Commercialization of Bio-Based Packaging

   As more people around the world focus on reducing plastic waste, bio-based packaging offers hope to both the industry and consumers. Created from resources that can be replaced and often biodegrade, they give people a greener solution than standard plastic made from petroleum. Still, though there is more interest and positive progress in science, setting up bio-based packaging solutions regularly and commercially tends to be challenging. These problems involve both material

   functionality and profitability, how products can be mass-produced, and how they will impact the environment after they are used[49].

   1. Mechanical Properties and Durability: The Strength vs. Sustainability Trade-Off

      Bio-based packaging must be mechanically strong to compete with its synthetic counterparts. Because of their strong, flexible, and moisture-resistant properties, polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) are used in many challenging packaging uses. Conversely, several natural substances, for example, starch, cellulose, and chitosan, are limited in strength, stretch, and resistance to chemical penetration[50].

      Starch-based coatings are often not very flexible and are easily weakened by changes in humidity, which can damage the packaging when it is transported or stored. Like PET, PLA (polylactic acid) is preferred for rigid packaging, but its brittleness lacks the impact protection of PET. These difficulties often occur in applications involving flexible pouches, multilayer films, or packaging liquids because toughness in varied conditions matters.

      For this reason, researchers seek to fill these gaps by using blending techniques, plasticizers, nanocomposites, and surface treatments. Still, the benefits often come with new difficulties such as biodegradation issues, greater expense, or harder production processes. As a result, the industry keeps trying to balance reliable function with protecting nature[51].

   2. Scalability and Cost-Effectiveness: Making Green Affordable

      Bringing bio-based packaging materials to market is held back mainly by the high costs involved. Much of the plastic produced from fossil fuels has been enhanced by many decades of increased efficiency, worldwide systems, and greater production. Even so, most biobased products are not fully ready to be commercialized, since they require more investment and have lower production levels[52].

      For instance, PHAs (polyhydroxyalkanoates) are biodegradable and work well in the body, but it costs between five and ten times more to make them than it does to create regular plastics, mainly because of the cost of growing microbes and processing them. Similarly, CNC or modified starch coatings cost too much at present, and public funding or higher prices are required to use them in many products[53].

      Organizations often run into difficulties getting the right and enough agricultural waste and microbes to use. While petroleum is a standard material used for making synthetic plastics, bio-based feedstocks can change in their makeup depending on things such as season, region, or farming practices. As a result, the manufacturing process, the characteristics of the film, and quality control get more challenging for the companies as they face more variability.

      Despite these obstacles, improvements are gradually taking technologies further. Advances in how biorefineries are made, new techniques in fermentation, and using resources like algae and food waste are making bio-based materials easier to get. Because competitive packaging costs arent here yet and because plastic isnt penalized strongly enough by law many businesses are still reluctant to switch to using recyclable materials[54].

   3. Environmental Performance and Recyclability: Not Always Black and White

   Bio-based packaging looks great for the environment, but this is not enough; some conditions and difficulties need to be resolved for it to be successful commercially.A lot of consumers do not get the difference between biodegradability and compostability. Many bio-based substances, such as PLA, need to be composted in special industrial facilities regulated for temperature and humidity. When such facilities are missing, these materials tend to remain in landfills for a comparable length of time as conventional plastics. In addition, a few types of bio-coatings decay naturally, but they may end up causing trouble during paper recycling or leave behind microplastic substances if not correctly handled[36].

   An additional problem is how much bio-based packaging contributes to carbon emissions. Although renewable feedstocks lower our dependence on fossil fuels, farming them, moving them, and processing them still result in significant emissions, mainly when fertilizers, irrigation, and long transport are needed. Because land degradation and loss of biodiversity can happen when growing the same crops, concerns arise about the sustainability of some feedstock plants.

   Bio-based coatings need to be carefully made to be compatible with the current procedures used for waste handling. Recycling paper treated with synthetic polymers is hard, and if bio-based coatings make the process of separation difficult, then they could be just as difficult. Recent improvements in bio-coatings that dissolve in water or are broken down by enzymes are helping to advance toward achievable, green hybrid packaging.

   In other words, bio-based packaging will only be sustainable if it fulfils its duties in all stages from mining raw materials to usage, getting rid of it, and processing it again. This standard is still being accomplished over time [42].

5. Conclusion

   Over the past years, biopolymer technologies have made bio-based materials good contenders for sustainable packaging. Improvements in extracting, altering, and using natural materials such as starch, cellulose, chitosan, and polylactic acid (PLA) have increased their strength, resistance to outside influences, and how they can be used during manufacturing. Recently, researchers have synthesized PHAs in microbes to make new, biodegradable, and biocompatible materials. With these advances, bio-based materials are solving many of the problems that restricted their use

   before, allowing them to be used more widely, outperform other materials, and be manufactured in greater quantities.

   At the same moment, societies and buyers beliefs are moving fast to demand greener packaging options. With people becoming more aware of environmental issues, hearing a lot about plastic pollution, and wanting products that care for nature, they are now looking for brands that are sustainable. Thus, businesses in food and beverage, pharmaceuticals, and personal care are revising the way they use packaging. Some of the biggest global companies are adding biodegradable films, compostable containers, and recyclable paper solutions as part of their pledge to sustainability. Certification and eco-labels from trusted sources are becoming available in the packaging industry, so customers can make more confident choices and believe in biopolymer products.

   With the changing industry, many products are becoming suitable for repeat use, recycling, or safe disposal back into the environment, as fit for a circular economy. By choosing bio-based packaging, this kind of model reduces fossil fuel use, leads to lower greenhouse gas emissions, and provides more natural ways to dispose of packages. While conventional plastics remain in the environment for a long time, biopolymers are better at helping the environment because they can be used again or recycled. Changing agricultural leftovers or waste from food processing into attractive packaging provides environmental and financial support.

   Therefore, making laws and guidelines is helping bio-based packaging progress as a method to reduce plastic waste around the world. Forces come from the government to reduce the use of single- use plastics, make manufacturers handle waste, and promote greener purchasing, thus helping make

   people choose environmentally beneficial options. Improvements in materials science and greater support from customers are helping biopolymers play an important role in global packaging devices.

   Ultimately, the use of bio-based coatings and polymers in packaging means a key change in how we think about using and reusing materials. By keeping up with advances, working as a united community, and offering suitable infrastructure, biopolymer technologies aim to make packaging more circular, responsible, and well matched to both people and the planet.

6. Acknowledgement

We are grateful to the Integral University, Lucknow, India, for providing necessary laboratory facilities. We are also thankful to Department of Science and Technology (DST-FIST) for providing funds to establish the Central Instrumentation Facility in the Integral Centre of Excellence for Interdisciplinary Research (ICEIR).

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