A Survey on Distributed Ledger-Based Certificate Authentication System

A Survey on Distributed Ledger-Based Certificate Authentication System

Ms. Neha Beegam P E

Assistant Professor

Department of Computer Science and Engineering Federal Institute of Science and Technology Angamaly, India

Mr. Athulraj Appukuttan

Department of Computer Science and Engineering Federal Institute of Science and Technology Angamaly, India

Mr. Alen K Sangeeth

Department of Computer Science and Engineering Federal Institute of Science and Technology Angamaly, India

Mr. Alex Jo Tomy

Department of Computer Science and Engineering Federal Institute of Science and Technology Angamaly, India

Mr. Alex Rijo Joseph

Department of Computer Science and Engineering Federal Institute of Science and Technology Angamaly, India

Abstract – With the rapid digital transformation of ed- ucational and professional environments, certificate ver- ification has become a critical security concern. Tra- ditional certificate authentication systems rely on cen- tralized repositories and manual verification processes, which are vulnerable to forgery, unauthorized modifica- tion, and operational inefficiencies. Blockchain technol- ogy offers a decentralized, immutable, and transparent framework that addresses these challenges. This sur- vey presents an extensive review of blockchain-based cer- tificate authentication systems proposed in recent litera- ture. Various architectures, blockchain platforms, smart contract models, cryptographic mechanisms, and opti- mization techniques are analyzed. A detailed compari- son is presented to highlight strengths, limitations, and open research challenges. The study aims to serve as a comprehensive reference for researchers and practition- ers working on secure and scalable certificate verifica- tion solutions.

Keywords – Blockchain; Certificate Authentication; Ar- tificial Intelligence; Distributed Ledger; Smart Con- tracts.

1. INTRODUCTION

   Certificates act as formal evidence of academic qualifica- tions, professional expertise, and skill development. With the widespread adoption of online education platforms and digital recruitment systems, certificate forgery has increased significantly. Traditional verification methods rely on cen- tralized databases and manual validation, making them vul- nerable to tampering, security breaches, and operational de- lays.

   Blockchain technology introduces a decentralized and im- mutable ledger secured through cryptographic hashing and consensus mechanisms. Smart contracts automate certificate issuance, verification, and revocation, reducing dependency on intermediaries and improving trust.

   The motivation behind blockchain-based certificate au- thentication arises from the increasing reliance on digi- tal credentials in education, employment, and governance. Traditional certificate verification mechanisms are slow, institution-dependent, and vulnerable to forgery. In many cases, employers and universities must manually contact is- suing authorities, resulting in delays and increased adminis- trative cost.

   The primary objective of blockchain-based certificate au- thentication systems is to establish a trusted, tamper-proof, and decentralized verification mechanism. Such systems aim to eliminate intermediaries, reduce verification time, and ensure global accessibility. Additional objectives in- clude scalability to support large user bases, interoperability across institutions, and privacy preservation for certificate holders.

   By achieving these objectives, blockchain-based systems can significantly improve trust and efficiency in credential verification ecosystems.

2. BACKGROUND AND EVOLUTION OF CERTIFICATE AUTHENTICATION SYSTEMS

   Certificate authentication has evolved significantly from manual, paper-based verification methods to digital and au- tomated systems. Early approaches relied on physical cer- tificates issued by institutions, where verification required direct contact with issuing authorities. This process was slow, costly, and highly dependent on institutional trust.

   With the emergence of centralized digital databases, insti- tutions began storing certificate records electronically. Al- though this reduced manual effort, centralized systems in- troduced new challenges such as single points of failure, in- sider attacks, and large-scale data breaches. High-profile in- cidents involving forged certificates further exposed the lim- itations of centralized verification models.

   The introduction of cryptographic techniques improved data integrity, but trust was still placed in centralized au- thorities. Blockchain technology represents a paradigm shift by decentralizing trust and enabling tamper-proof record keeping. By distributing certificate records across multiple nodes, blockchain eliminates reliance on a single authority and provides verifiable proof of authenticity.

   This evolution highlights why blockchain-based certifi- cate authentication systems are increasingly considered a promising solution for modern credential verification.

3. METHODOLOGY

   This survey adopts a systematic methodology to ana- lyze and compare blockchain-based certificate authentica- tion systems proposed in existing literature. The method- ology is designed to ensure comprehensive coverage, objec- tive evaluation, and meaningful comparison of prior research works.

   1. Literature Collection and Selection

      Relevant research articles were collected from reputed digital libraries including IEEE Xplore, ACM Digital Li- brary, SpringerLink, Elsevier ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. Keywords such as blockchain-based certificate authentication, digital credential verification, decentralized identity, and smart contract-based authentication were used during the search process. Only peer-reviewed journal arti- cles, conference papers, and survey studies published in re- cent years were considered to ensure quality and relevance.

   2. Screening and Classification

      The collected studies were screened based on predefined inclusion criteria. Papers focusing on certificate authenti- cation, credential verification, issuer validation, or decen- tralized identity management were shortlisted. The selected studies were then classified according to their blockchain type (public, consortium, or permissioned), authentication mechanism, storage strategy (on-chain or off-chain), and privacy model.

   3. Analytical Framework

      Each selected work was analyzed using a common ana- lytical framework. Key aspects examined include system architecture, certificate issuance and verification workflow, cryptographic techniques employed, use of smart contracts, and trust management strategies. Special attention was given to performance-related parameters such as transaction cost, verification latency, scalability, and storage overhead.

   4. Comparative Analysis

      A comparative study was conducted to identify similari- ties

      and differences among existing approaches. The com- parison focused on methodology, advantages, limitations, and applicability of each system. This analysis helped in identifying recurring challenges such as interoperability, scalability limitations, high transaction costs, and privacy concerns. The comparison results are summarized in tabular and graphical forms to enhance clarity.

   5. Gap Identification and Synthesis

   Based on the comparative analysis, research gaps and open challenges were identified. The synthesis of findings highlights the lack of large-scale real-world deployments, limited interoperability across heterogeneous blockchain systems, and the need for cost-efficient and privacy- preserving solutions. These observations form the basis for proposing future research directions discussed later in this paper.

4. RELATED WORKS

   R. Priyadarshini et al. [1] proposed a faster, integrated, and trusted certificate authentication and issuer validation system based on blockchain technology. The study primar- ily focuses on addressing critical challenges in traditional certificate verification systems, such as certificate forgery, centralized trust dependency, delayed verification, and lack of issuer authenticity. By leveraging blockchain technol- ogy, the proposed system aims to provide a decentralized, tamper-resistant, and transparent mechanism for certificate issuance and verification.

   The authors designed a blockchain-based framework us- ing Ethereum smart contracts, where digital certificates are processed by generating cryptographic hashes using secure hashing algorithms. These hashes, along with relevant meta- data such as certificate identifiers and issuer information, are permanently stored on the blockchain. To enhance verifica- tion efficiency and reduce computational overhead, Bloom Filters are integrated into the system. Bloom Filters enable rapid membership testing, allowing the system to quickly determine whether a certificate exists in the blockchain with- out performing exhaustive searches.

   The framework also introduces an issuer validation mech- anism to ensure that only authorized and legitimate in- stitutions are allowed to issue certificates. This dual- layer validation approach strengthens trust by verifying both the certificate and the issuing authority. Experimen- tal analysis demonstrates that the proposed system sig- nificantly improves verification speed compared to con- ventional blockchain-based certificate authentication ap- proaches, while also reducing gas consumption through op- timized data structures.

   Figure 1: High-Level Architecture of the Blockchain-Based Certificate Authentication Framework

   Performance evaluation results reported by the authors in- dicate high accuracy in certificate verification and improved efficiency in terms of search time and transaction cost. The use of Bloom Filters plays a key role in achieving scalable verification, particularly when handling large volumes of certificates. The system demonstrates strong resistance to certificate forgery and unauthorized modification due to the immutable nature of blockchain storage.

   Table 1: Performance Evaluation Results Reported by Priyadarshini et al.

   Metric	Traditional System	Proposed Sys- tem
   Verification Time Accuracy Gas Consump- tion Forgery Resis- tance	High Moderate High Low	Low High Reduced High

   Despite its advantages, the proposed system exhibits cer- tain limitations. Since it is implemented on the public Ethereum blockchain, transaction costs may increase sig- nificantly during periods of network congestion, affecting scalability. Additionally, the evaluation is conducted pri- marily in controlled experimental environments, and chal- lenges related to real-world deployment, regulatory compli- ance, and long-term operational cost are not extensively ex- plored. These limitations highlight the need for further re- search on cost-efficient, scalable, and hybrid blockchain ar- chitectures for certificate authentication systems.

   A. Mondal et al. [4] proposed a blockchain-based secure e- certificate management system with the objective of en- hancing the integrity, authenticity, and accessibility of digi- tal academic certificates. The study addresses major weak- nesses of traditional centralized certificate repositories, such as susceptibility to forgery, single points of failure, and lim- ited transparency in verification processes. By integrating blockchain with decentralized storage mechanisms, the au-

   thors aim to provide a tamper-resistant and scalable solution for digital certificate management.

   In the proposed system, academic certificates are stored off- chain using the InterPlanetary File System (IPFS), while cryptographic hashes of the certificates along with relevant metadata are recorded on the blockchain. This hybrid stor- age approach significantly reduces on-chain storage over- head while preserving data integrity. The blockchain acts as a trusted ledger that maintains immutable references to cer- tificate data, enabling secure verification without revealing sensitive information.

   During certificate issuance, the issuing authority uploads the certificate to IPFS and obtains a unique content identifier (CID). A hash of this CID is then stored on the blockchain through smart contracts. For verification, the verifier re- trieves the certificate from IPFS using the CID and recom- putes its hash, which is compared against the blockchain record. A matching hash confirms authenticity and ensures that the certificate has not been altered.

   Furthermore, the system supports decentralized verifica- tion by allowing third-party verifiers to validate certificates without requiring direct communication with the issuing in- stitution. This capability significantly reduces verification latency and administrative overhead, particularly in large- scale academic and professional ecosystems. The frame- work also benefits from the fault tolerance of IPFS, improv- ing certificate availability even under network disruptions.

   However, the authors note that system performance and responsiveness may vary depending on network conditions and blockchain transaction throughput. Additionally, is- suer trust management and efficient certificate search mech- anisms are not explicitly addressed, indicating potential ar- eas for improvement. Nevertheless, the proposed framework demonstrates the effectiveness of combining blockchain and decentralized storage technologies in enhancing the security, efficiency, and reliability of digital certificate management systems.

   Figure 2: Hybrid IPFSBlockchain Architecture for Secure E-Certificate Management

   Experimental results presented by the authors indicate that the use of IPFS significantly improves storage efficiency and system scalability. The decentralised architecture en- sures

   high availability of certificates and resilience against data tampering. The system also reduces dependency on is- suing institutions during verification, thereby enabling faster and more reliable certificate validation.

   Table 2: Performance Characteristics of Mondal et al.s Sys- tem

   Performance Metric	Observation
   Storage Overhead Verification Integrity Tamper Resistance System Scalability Verification Latency	Low (Off-chain via IPFS) High Strong Improved Moderate

   Despite its advantages, the proposed system exhibits cer- tain limitations. The framework does not include a robust mechanism for issuer authentication or trust management, making it vulnerable to unauthorized certificate issuance if issuer identities are compromised. Additionally, certificate lookup and verification performance may degrade with an increasing number of records, as no optimized search or in- dexing techniques are employed. These limitations highlight the need for integrated issuer validation and efficient lookup mechanisms in future blockchain-based certificate manage- ment systems.

   S. Sharma et al. [2] presented an unforgeable digi- physical academic certificate framework aimed at address- ing both digital and physical certificate forgery. The pri- mary motivation of this work is to overcome limitations of conventional digitalcertificate systems, where physical cer- tificates can still be duplicated or manipulated without any effective linkage to their digital counterparts. By integrating blockchain technology with physical authentication mecha- nisms, the authors propose a hybrid certification model that ensures end-to-end authenticity and integrity.

   In the proposed system, each academic certificate is is- sued in both digital and physical forms, tightly coupled through a unique physical identifier such as a QR code or embedded secure tag. During certificate issuance, the is- suing authority generates a digital certificate and computes its cryptographic hash. This hash is permanently stored on the blockchain, while the physical certificate embeds a refer- ence to this blockchain record. As a result, any unauthorized modification of either the digital or physical certificate can be instantly detected during verification.

   The verification process involves scanning the physical identifier present on the certificate to retrieve the corre- sponding blockchain record. The verifier compares the hash embedded in the physical certificate with the hash stored on the blockchain. If both values match, the certificate is vali- dated as authentic; otherwise, it is flagged as forged or tam- pered. This approach enables instant, decentralized verifi- cation without the need for direct interaction with the issu-

   ing institution, thereby improving verification efficiency and trustworthiness.

   Figure 3: Digi-Physical Certificate Issuance and Verification Framework

   Experimental evaluation reported by the authors demon- strates that the digi-physical framework significantly en- hances resistance to certificate forgery when compared to traditional paper-based and purely digital systems. The im- mutability of blockchain records ensures strong data in- tegrity, while the physicaldigital binding improves real- world applicability in academic and professional certifica- tion environments.

   Table 3: Security Characteristics of Digi-Physical Certifi- cate Authentication System

   Security Metric	Observation
   Physical Forgery Resistance Digital Tamper Resistance Verification Speed Issuer Dependency Deployment Complexity	Very High High (Blockchain- based) Fast Minimal High

   However, the proposed framework introduces additional deployment complexity arising from the management of physical identifiers and secure certificate printing processes. Moreover, large-scale deployment may involve increased operational costs and logistical overhead. These obser- vations indicate the need for future research focusing on lightweight digi-physical authentication mechanisms and cost-efficient deployment strategies to enable scalable cer- tificate verification systems.

   R. Rahardja et al. [3] proposed a blockchain-based digital certificate authentication framework aimed at improving the security, scalability, and accessibility of certificate verifica- tion across multiple institutions. The primary motivation of this work is to address the limitations of centralized certifi- cate management systems, including single points of failure, lack of interoperability, and delayed cross-institutional veri- fication.

   The authors designed a consortium blockchain architec- ture

   in which multiple trusted educational institutions col- lectively maintain the distributed ledger. In the proposed framework, digital certificates are issued by authorized in- stitutions, and cryptographic hashes of certificates are stored

   on the blockchain to ensure immutability and tamper resis- tance. Smart contracts are employed to automate certificate issuance, validation, and revocation, enabling efficient and transparent verification without direct interaction with the issuing authority.

   Figure 4: Consortium Blockchain-Based Certificate Authen- tication Framework

   The system supports decentralized verification, allowing external entities such as employers or academic institutions to validate certificates by querying the blockchain. By re- stricting validator participation to trusted organizations, the framework achieves higher throughput and lower latency compared to public blockchain solutions. The consortium model also facilitates governance control and compliance with institutional policies.

   Experimental evaluation reported by the authors demon- strates improved verification efficiency and reduced re- sponse time when compared to traditional centralized verifi- cation systems. The framework effectively prevents certifi- cate forgery and unauthorized modification due to the im- mutable nature of blockchain storage and cryptographic ver- ification mechanisms.

   Table 4: Summary of Features and Performance in Rahardja et al.

   Aspect	Description
   Blockchain Type Certificate Storage Verification Method Performance Forgery Resistance	Consortium Blockchain On-chain certificate hash Smart contract-based valida- tion Low latency, high through- put High

   Notwithstanding these benefits, certain limitations remain in the proposed framework, the proposed framework ex- hibits certain limitations. The consortium blockchain model

   introduces governance and trust management challenges, as participating institutions must agree on validator selec- tion, consensus rules, and operational policies. Addition- ally, limiting validator participation reduces openness and public verifiability compared to fully decentralized public blockchains. The framework also lacks a detailed discussion on cross-consortium interoperability and large-scale deploy- ment feasibility, highlighting areas for further research.

   G. Ghani et al. [5] presented a permissioned blockchain- based network for managing and verifying student creden- tials, with the primary objective of addressing security, pri- vacy, and performance limitations of public blockchain- based academic certification systems. The authors empha- size the need for controlled participation and institutional governance in academic environments, where unrestricted public access may raise regulatory and privacy concerns. The proposed system is implemented using Hyperledger Fabric, a permissioned blockchain platform that enables fine-grained access control and identity management. Aca- demic institutions act as authorized peers in the network, and only trusted entities are allowed to issue, update, or verify student credentials. Digital certificates are generated and their cryptographic hashes are stored on the blockchain, ensuring data integrity and resistance to tampering. Smart contracts, implemented as chaincode, automate credential issuance and verification processes.

   Figure 5: Permissioned Blockchain Network for Student Credential Management

   The framework ensures efficient credential verification by allowing verifiers to query the blockchain ledger di- rectly without contacting the issuing institution. Perfor- mance evaluation results reported by the authors demon- strate low transaction latency and high throughput compared to public blockchain solutions, making the approach suitable for large- scale institutional deployments. The system also provides enhanced privacy protection by restricting data ac- cess to authorized participants, in compliance with academic and regulatory requirements. Furthermore, the use of smart contracts automates validation workflows and minimizes hu- man intervention during the verification process. This archi- tectural design improves operational efficiency while main- taining a high level of trust and data integrity. In addition, the decentralized record-keeping mechanism reduces depen-

   dency on centralized databases, thereby lowering the risk of data breaches and system failures. The modular structure of the framework also allows easy integration with existing in- stitutiona IT infrastructures, supporting practical adoption.

   Table 5: Feature Analysis of the Permissioned Blockchain Framework

   Aspect	Description
   Blockchain Type Access Control Certificate Storage Performance Privacy Protection	Permissioned (Hyperledger Fabric) Identity-based, role- managed On-chain hash values Low latency, high through- put High

   Although the proposed framework achieves improved per- formance and privacy preservation, it introduces certain lim- itations. The permissioned nature of the blockchain re- duces transparency and global public verifiability, which are key advantages of decentralized public blockchain systems. Since validator participation is restricted to selected institu- tions, the network relies on trust within the consortium, par- tially reintroducing centralized governance characteristics.

   Additionally, institutional governance increases admin- istrative overhead, including validator management, pol- icy enforcement, and coordination among participating en- tities. Interoperability across independent blockchain net- works also remains a challenge, especially when different platforms and data standards are used. Without standard- ized credential formats and cross-chain mechanisms, seam- less verification across systems becomes difficult.

   These limitations highlight the need for hybrid architec- tures that balance privacy, performance, transparency, and decentralization to ensure practical and scalable deployment of blockchain-based certificate authentication systems.

   A. Garba et al. [7] proposed a privacy-preserving certifi- cate authentication framework that addresses confidential- ity concerns in blockchain-based credential verification sys- tems. The primary motivation of this work is to prevent un- necessary exposure of sensitive certificate information dur- ing the verification process while maintaining authenticity and integrity. The authors argue that although blockchain ensures immutability, naive storage or verification of certifi- cates may lead to privacy leakage due to the transparency of distributed ledgers.

   The proposed framework combines blockchain technol- ogy with cryptographic hashing and Bloom Filters to enable efficient and privacy-aware certificate verification. Instead of storing complete certificate details on-chain, the system stores only cryptographic representations, thereby minimiz- ing the risk of sensitive data disclosure. Bloom Filters are

   employed to perform fast membership verification, allowing verifiers to confirm the authenticity of certificates without accessing the original certificate content or revealing user- specific details.

   Figure 6: Privacy-Preserving Blockchain-Based Certificate Authentication Framework

   The verification process enables a verifier to check certificate validity by comparing hashed values against the blockchain-stored records, ensuring both integrity and anonymity of credential data. This approach eliminates the need for direct interaction with the issuing authority, thereby reducing verification latency and administrative overhead. Experimental evaluation results reported in the study indi- cate that the proposed approach significantly reduces ver- ification time and storage overhead while preserving user privacy. In addition, the use of cryptographic hashing and Bloom Filters enables fast membership checks without ex- posing sensitive certificate information. The decentralized nature of the framework further improves system reliabil- ity by avoiding single points of failure and supporting dis- tributed verification. The system demonstrates robustness against common security threats such as certificate forgery, replay attacks, and unauthorized data access, making it suit- able for secure and privacy-aware digital credential verifica- tion.

   Table 6: Feature Summary of the Privacy-Preserving Au- thentication Framework

   Aspect	Description
   Privacy Technique Data Exposure Verification Speed Forgery Resistance Blockchain Trans- parency	Hashing + Bloom Filters Minimal (no plaintext stor- age) High High Privacy-aware

   However, the proposed framework presents certain limi- tations. The reliance on Bloom Filters introduces a small probability of false positives, which may impact verification accuracy in edge cases. Additionally, the system depends on auxiliary components such as browser extensions or mid-

   dleware for verification, potentially limiting usability and real-world adoption. The approach also does not fully ad- dress key management challenges and cross-platform inter- operability, indicating areas for further research in privacy- preserving credential authentication systems.

   T. Nguyen et al. [6] presented a comprehensive survey on decentralized authentication mechanisms for Web 3.0 envi- ronments, focusing on the limitations of traditional central- ized identity and authentication models. The study high- lights how centralized authentication systems suffer from single points of failure, privacy leakage, censorship risks, and data monopolization, which are incompatible with the decentralized vision of Web 3.0.

   The authors systematically analyze decentralized authen- tication paradigms built on blockchain technology, decen- tralized identifiers (DIDs), and verifiable credentials. These systems enable users to maintain full ownership and con- trol over their digital identities, eliminating reliance on cen- tralized identity providers. The survey examines the role of smart contracts, cryptographic signatures, publicprivate key infrastructure, and distributed ledgers in enabling trust- less authentication and authorization processes across de- centralized applications.

   Figure 7: Decentralized Authentication Framework for Web 3.0 Ecosystems

   The paper provides a detailed taxonomy of decentralized authentication approaches, categorizing them based on iden- tity management models, trust assumptions, privacy guaran- tees, and scalability characteristics. It also discusses integra- tion challenges related to usability, interoperability across blockchains, regulatory compliance, and performance over- head. Security and privacy implications such as key manage- ment, correlation attacks, and metadata leakage are critically examined.

   Table 7: Summary of Decentralized Authentication Mecha- nisms in Web 3.0

   Aspect	Description
   Authentication Model Key Technologies Privacy Control Trust Model Application Scope	Decentralized, user- controlled Blockchain, DIDs, Verifi- able Credentials User-centric, selective dis- closure Trustless / distributed Web 3.0 and dApps

   Although the survey provides an extensive conceptual and architectural overview, it primarily focuses on high- level design principles and comparative analysis rather than implementation-specific evaluation. The lack of empiri- cal performance benchmarking and real-world deployment analysis limits direct applicability to practical certificate au- thentication systems. Furthermore, issues related to scala- bility, user experience, and seamless integration with legacy systems remain open challenges, indicating potential re- search directions for applying decentralized authentication models to blockchain-based certificate verification frame- works.

   T. Merlec et al. [8] proposed a blockchain-based degree verification framework designed to enhance the authenticity and integrity of academic qualifications while reducing re- liance on centralized verification authorities. The study ad- dresses the growing incidence of degree forgery and the inef- ficiencies associated with manual, institution-centric verifi- cation processes in intrnational academic and employment contexts.

   The proposed framework adopts a consortium-oriented blockchain architecture in which higher education institu- tions act as trusted participants responsible for issuing and maintaining degree credentials. Instead of storing full de- gree documents on-chain, the system records cryptographic hashes of academic credentials on the blockchain, ensuring immutability and tamper resistance. Smart contracts are uti- lized to automate degree issuance and verification, enabling third-party verifiers to validate credentials without direct in- teraction with the issuing institution.

   Figure 8: Blockchain-Based Degree Verification Framework

   The verification process enables employers, universities, and accreditation bodies to authenticate academic and pro- fessional credentials by comparing the cryptographic hash of a presented certificate with the corresponding hash se- curely recorded on the blockchain. Since blockchain records are immutable and distributed across multiple nodes, any alteration to the original credential immediately results in a hash mismatch, thereby preventing tampering and unau- thorized modification. This decentralized validation mecha- nism eliminates the reliance on a single centralized authority and ensures transparent, real-time verification across institu- tional boundaries.

   Furthermore, the framework enhances trust by leveraging distributed consensus mechanisms and smart contract en- forcement, which regulate issuer permissions and automate validation workflows. By storing only cryptographic rep- resentations of certificates on-chain while maintaining de- tailed records off-chain, the system optimizes storage effi- ciency without compromising security. Experimental evalu- ations reported in the study indicate a significant reduction in verification latency and operational overhead compared to conventional centralized verification systems. In addi- tion, the decentralized architecture demonstrates improved resilience against data breaches, single-point failures, and fraudulent credential issuance, thereby establishing a more robust and scalable certificate authentication ecosystem.

   Table 8: Feature Summary of Blockchain-Based Degree Verification System

   Aspect	Description
   Blockchain Type Credential Storage Verification Ap- proach Forgery Resistance Interoperability	Consortium blockchain On-chain hashes Smart contract-based High Institutional collaboration

   However, the proposed framework introduces certain lim- itations. The consortium-based trust model restricts open- ness and public verifiability, which are key advantages of public blockchains. Additionally, interoperability across in- dependent consortium networks is not fully addressed, po- tentially limiting global scalability. The study also pro- vides limited analysis of long-term operational costs and real-world deployment challenges, indicating the need for further investigation into large-scale adoption of blockchain- based degree verification systems. Furthermore, governance complexity and lack of standardized cross-chain protocols may hinder seamless integration across institutions.

5. COMPARISON STUDY

   Several studies have proposed blockchain-based ap- proaches for certificate authentication and credential verifi- cation to enhance security, transparency, and trust in digital credential management. These approaches differ in terms of

   methodology, blockchain architecture, privacy mechanisms, and verification models. Some systems emphasize fast veri- fication and issuer validation, while others focus on privacy- preserving authentication and decentralized identity man- agement.

   Despite their advantages, existing solutions face chal- lenges such as interoperability issues, scalability limitations, deployment complexity, and integration with institutional systems. To highlight these differences and identify research gaps, a comparative analysis of representative blockchain- based certificate authentication systems is presented in Table IX.

   Table 9: Comparison Study of Blockchain-Based Certificate Authentication Systems

   Paper	Methodology	Advantages	Disadvantages
   Paper 1	Blockchain- based certificate authentication with issuer validation	Fastverifi- cation and improved trust manage- ment	Deployment complexity and interoper- ability issues
   Paper 2	Digi-physical certificate verifica- tionusing QR/NFC	Prevents forgery and enables instant verifi- cation	High hard- ware cost and integration overhead
   Paper 3	Decentralized identity and self- sovereign authentication	Privacy- preserving and user- controlled verification	Interoperability challenges across iden- tity systems
   Paper 4	Survey of blockchain- based verification approaches	Identifies trends and research gaps	Lacks experi- mental evalu- ation
   Paper 5	Blockchain- based trans- parent univer- sity ranking	Prevents ranking ma- nipulation	Complex data integration process
   Paper 6	Smart contract- based aca- demic accred- itation	Secure and auditable credential validation	Limited scala- bility for large datasets
   Paper 7	Automated certificate transactions using smart contracts	Efficient and transparent execution	High gas cost and limited flexibility
   Paper 8	Smart con- tract vul- nerability detection framework	Improves contract secu- rity	Focused only on integer overflow
   Paper 9	Lightweight blockchain- based cer- tificate verification	Low latency and high efficiency	Limited large- scale evalua- tion
   Paper 10	Blockchain- based access control for certificates	Fine-grained access control and traceabil- ity	High compu- tational over- head

6. SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

   Figure 9: Overall System Architecture

   Figure 10: Ecosystem View of Blockchain-Based Certificate Authentication

7. SYSTEM MODEL AND WORKFLOW

   A typical blockchain-based certificate authentication sys- tem consists of multiple stakeholders including certificate issuers, certificate holders, verifiers, and the blockchain net- work. The issuer is responsible for generating certificates and registering them on the blockchain. Certificate hold- ers store their credentials and present them for verification when required. Verifiers validate certificates by querying the blockchain without contacting the issuer directly.

   The workflow begins with certificate issuance, where the issuer computes a cryptographic hash of the certificate and stores it on the blockchain via a smart contract. During verification, the verifier recomputes the hash of the pre- sented certificate and compares it with the on-chain record. A match confirms authenticity, while a mismatch indicates tampering or forgery.

   This decentralized workflow ensures transparency, im- mutability, and real-time verification across institutional boundaries

8. IMPLEMENTATION

   The implementation of blockchain-based certificate au- thentication systems involves the integration of distributed ledger technology, cryptographic mechanisms, and smart contracts to ensure secure and efficient certificate issuance and verification. A typical implementation begins with defining system roles such as certificate issuers, certificate holders, verifiers, and blockchain network participants. Is- suing institutions generate digital certificates and compute cryptographic hashes, which are recorded on the blockchain to ensure immutability and tamper resistance.

   Smart contracts are deployed to automate key operations including certificate registration, verification, and revoca- tion. These contracts enforce access control rules, ensur- ing that only authorized issuers can register certificates on the blockchain. To reduce on-chain storage overhead, most implementations store only hash values and metadata on the blockchain, while the actual certificate files are main- tained using off-chain storage solutions such as the Inter- Planetary File System (IPFS). During verification, the veri- fier recomputes the certificate hash and compares it with the blockchain-stored record to validate authenticity.

   The choice of blockchain platform significantly influ- ences implementation complexity and performance. Public blockchains such as Ethereum offer transparency and decen- tralization but incur higher transaction fees and latency. In contrast, permissioned and consortium blockchains provide better control, lower latency, and improved scalability, mak- ing them suitable for institutional environments. Integration with existing institutional databases and applications is typ- ically achieved through application programming interfaces (APIs) and middleware services.

   A. Implementation Challenges

   Implementing blockchain-based certificate authentication systems involves several practical challenges. High transac- tion fees on public blockchains may limit scalability, partic- ularly when handling large volumes of certificate issuance and verification requests. Network latency can also impact real-time verification performance during peak usage peri- ods.

   Interoperability with legacy institutional systems remains a major challenge, as existing infrastructures are often not designed to support decentralized technologies. Institutions may require significant system upgrades and process reengi- neering to adopt blockchain-based solutions. Additionally, user adoption poses challenges related to usability, key man- agement, and awareness of decentralized systems.

   Regulatory compliance and data protection laws must also be carefully considered, especially when handling sensitive personal information. The immutable nature of blockchain records raises concerns regarding data privacy and the right to erasure under certain legal frameworks.

   Addressing these challenges requires the adoption of hybrid system architectures, where blockchain components are integrated with traditional systems. The use of off- chain storage, layer-2 scaling solutions, and consortium or

   permissioned blockchains can help reduce cost and improve performance. Furthermore, effective policy-level coordination among educational institutions, regulatory bodies, and technology providers is essential to enable secure, compliant, and scalable deployment.

9. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION METRICS

   Performance evaluation is essential to assess the feasibil- ity of blockchain-based certificate authentication systems. Key metrics include transaction cost, verification latency, throughput, and storage overhead.

   Transaction cost directly affects scalability, particularly in public blockchains. Verification latency impacts user expe- rience. Throughput determines system capacity during peak periods. Storage overhead depends on on-chain and off- chain storage strategies.

   Most existing studies evaluate performance in test en- vironments, indicating the need for real-world deployment analysis. Such evaluations often overlook practical factors like network congestion and varying workload conditions that impact system performance.

   Evaluation results reported in existing literature demon- strate that blockchain-based certificate authentication sys- tems significantly outperform traditional approaches in terms of verification time and resistance to forgery. Pub- lic blockchain implementations generally achieve verifica- tion within seconds, whereas traditional systems may re- quire hours or days.

   However, performance varies depending on blockchain type, consensus mechanism, and storage strategy. Ethereum- based systems often incur higher transaction costs, while permissioned blockchains provide lower latency at the cost of reduced decentralization. Off-chain storage mechanisms such as IPFS reduce on-chain load and improve scalability.

   Most evaluations are conducted in test environments, highlighting the need for large-scale real-world performance benchmarking. Future studies should focus on long-term op- erational cost, network congestion effects, and user experi- ence metrics.

10. CONCLUSION

This survey examined blockchain-based certificate au- thentication systems and highlighted their potential to en- hance security, transparency, and trust in digital credential verification. By leveraging decentralization, cryptographic integrity, and smart contracts, blockchain technology ef- fectively addresses key limitations of traditional centralized certificate management approaches, such as forgery, data tampering, and inefficient verification processes.

The study reviewed various blockchain architectures and design strategies, revealing important trade-offs related to scalability, cost, privacy, and interoperability. While blockchain-based solutions enable faster and more reliable certificate verification across institutional boundaries, chal- lenges such as transaction cost, system scalability, gover- nance complexity, and real-world deployment constraints re- main. In addition, privacy preservation and interoperabil- ity across heterogeneous blockchain networks continue to be open research issues.

Future research should focus on developing cost-efficient, interoperable, and scalable frameworks by leveraging hybrid architectures, layer-2 solutions, and privacy-enhancing tech- nologies. Addressing these challenges will be critical for en- abling large-scale, secure, and widely adopted blockchain- based certificate authentication systems in academic, profes- sional, and governmental domains.

X. FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

Future research in blockchain-based certificate authenti- cation should focus on developing hybrid blockchain archi- tectures that balance decentralization, performance, and cost efficiency. Layer-2 scaling solutions such as sidechains and state channels can significantly reduce transaction fees and improve throughput.

Privacy-preserving techniques including zero-knowledge proofs, secure multi-party computation, and decentralized identity frameworks can enhance confidentiality while main- taining verifiability. Cross-chain interoperability is another promising direction, enabling certificate verification across multiple blockchain networks.

Integration with national digital identity systems and gov- ernment registries can further strengthen trust and adoption. Finally, large-scale pilot deployments and longitudinal stud- ies are necessary to evaluate real-world performance, usabil- ity, and sustainability.

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