Dam Development and Disasters in Nigeria

Dam Development and Disasters in Nigeria

C. N. Ezugwu

Department of Civil Engineering, Anambra State University Uli, Nigeria.

ABSTRACT

Nigeria has abundant surface water bodies and good dam sites that could be utilized for dam construction to create reservoirs for various water uses including hydropower generation, flood control, water supply, irrigation, navigation, tourism, sanitation, fish and wild life development and ground water recharge. Dam development and disasters on people and the environment were examined. Various parts of our country are presently seriously ravaged by flooding. Moreover, impacts of dams and dam failures in the past were outlined. Various causes of dam failure were enumerated. Recommendations on how to avert future dam disasters in our country were also captured.

Keywords: dam, reservoir, disaster, impacts, flooding

1. Introduction

   Water is a critical natural resource. Without it, life could not exist and people could not survive [1]. For more than 5000 years, dams have provided people with reliable sources of water for their survival. A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or slows down the flow, often creating a reservoir, lake or impoundments [2]. Most dams have a section called a spillway or a weir over which, or through which, water flows either intermittently or continuously, and some have hydroelectric power generating systems installed. A dam- reservoir facility provides numerous benefits including generating electricity, direct water from rivers to canals, and irrigation and water supply systems, increase river depths for navigational purposes, to control water flow during times of flood and droughts, create artificial lakes for fisheries and recreational use, ground water recharge, etc. Many dams are multipurpose and fulfill several of these reasons.

   Dam failures are comparatively rare, but can cause immense damage and loss of life when they occur. In 1975, the other dam failure in the failure of the Banqiao Reservoir Dam and other dams in Henan Province, China caused more casualties than any other dam failure in history. The disaster killed an estimated 170,000 people [3] and 11 million people lost their homes. Dam destruction is one of the greatest man-made disasters that can instantly generate casualties and will bring about disastrous consequences.

   Dams and reservoirs in Nigeria are of particular importance in the north of the country, where rainfall is low. The construction of dams of appreciable heights and storage capacity became possible after the development of cement concrete and the mechanization of earth- moving and material handling equipment. The last century witnessed a dramatic increase in the construction of large dams. By 1994, about 5000 large dams had been built worldwide, three- quarter of them in industrialized countries. Today, over 45,000 large dam had been built in over 140 countries of the world [4]. The top five dam-building countries are China, United States, India, Spain and Japan and they account for nearly 80% of all large dams worldwide. China alone has built 22,000 large dams, the USA over 6390 large dams, India with over 4000 dams and Spain and Japan with between 1000 and 1200 dams each.

   Nigeria has witnessed an upsurge in dam construction in the past three decades. Over 323 dams have been constructed in Nigeria and many more are under construction in different parts of the country. Between 1970 and 1995, 246 dams were constructed in Nigeria. The effect of the Sahelian drought of 1972-1975 aggravated the food shortage in the country prompting the various levels of government to embark on a rigorous policy to increase food production. To achieve this, impoundment of river basins was seen as inevitable to provide sufficient water for year-round irrigation which led to the construction of over 246 dams [5].

   One thing is clear, that in the process of using surface waters for development, man has interfered so much with streams, rivers and lakes that now they can hardly be described as natural. It is also no doubt that dams have contributed to the economic growth of many nations. The numerous dams built round the world have played important role in helping communities and economies harness water resources for several uses. An estimated 30-40% of irrigated land worldwide now relies on dams and that dams generate 19% of world electricity [6]. However, these services are being provided not without a cost being paid for them.

2. Impacts of Dams

   1. Ecological impact

      The World Commission on Dams [6] reported that 60% of the World Rivers have been affected by dams and diversions. The impact of dams on the ecosystem include the physical, chemical and geomorphologic changes that occur when a river is blocked and altering the natural distribution and timing of stream flow. Dam construction also causes changes in primary biological productivity including effect on riverine riparian plant life and downstream habitat. The construction of storage dam and the subsequent inundation of the reservoir area effectively kill terrestrial plants and forest and displace animals [6]. Dam construction results in decrease in water quality and variable changes in the seasonal timing of water yield [7]. A dam also acts as a barrier between the upstream and downstream movement of migratory river animals, such as salmon and trout [8]. The depletion of groundwater aquifers, which is caused by the suppression of the seasonal flood cycle, is damaging the forests downstream of the dam [9].

   2. Emission of Greenhouse Gases (GHG)

      Reservoirs can also contribute to greenhouse gas emissions [10]. The emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) from reservoirs due to rotting vegetation and carbon inflow from the catchments is a recently identified ecosystem impact of storage dams. Estimate suggests that the gross emissions from reservoirs may account for between 1% and 28% of the global warming potential of GHG emissions [6]. This challenges the conventional ideal that hydropower produces only positive atmospheric effects such as a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, sulphuric oxides and particulate when compared with other power generation sources that burn fossil fuels [11]. This implies that all reservoirs emit GHG.

   3. Alteration of flow Regime

      Storage dam alter the natural distribution and timing of stream flow. Flow regimes are the key driving variable for downstream aquatic ecosystem. Flood timing, duration and frequency are all critical for the survival of communities of plants and animals living downstream. Impoundments may result in a variety of downstream modifications that may be important to its physico-chemical conditions and the stream biota. The specific changes that

      occur when a river is dammed depend on a complex series of interactions resulting from operation and construction of dams [12]. These changes compromise the dynamic aspects of rivers that are fundamental to maintaining the character of aquatic ecosystem.

   4. Biodiversity Loss

      Dams have led to the loss of aquatic biodiversity, loss of forest and wildlife habitat and species population. Dams disrupt the movement of species leading to changes in upstream and downstream species composition. Many river-dwelling species have several migratory patterns. For example, adult of anadromous fish such as salmon migrate upstream to spawn and the young descend. While for catadromous fish such as the eels, the adult migrate downstream and the young ascend upstream. Dams block these migrations. This is one of the most significant ecosystem impacts. Change in the physico-chemical properties of water bodies due to dam may lead directly to the death of aquatic biota [6].

   5. Social Impact

      The lives of many people and societies have been negatively affected by dams. An estimated 40-80 million people worldwide have been physically displaced by dam [6]. In China alone, 10.2 million people were displaced between 1950 and 1990 [13]. Though, independent source estimated that actual number is much higher than the official figure with 10 million people displaced in Yangtz Valley alone [14]. Among the project involving displacement funded by the World Bank, large dams account for 63% of displacement [15]. Indigenous people and ethnic minority suffer disproportionately as they lack citizenship, tenancy or land tenure papers.

      The failure of dams has also led to displacement of many people, and even in many cases cause the death of some. In Nigeria, the Ojirami dam in Southern Nigeria, failed in 1980 and affected two communities, Enwan and Akuku. Many people in Enwan and Akuku communities lost their houses and other property worth millions of naira to the huge flood plunging the communities into serious housing problems. Those who once lived in their houses have been forced to relocate and now live in rented houses. It also led too the problem of overcrowding in many houses. Up to 30 persons living in houses meant for 10 persons [16].

   6. Gender-Related Impacts

      It has been extensively documented that there is gender inequalities in access and control of economic and natural resources. In Asia and Africa, women may not have the right to use land and forest but are rarely allowed to own or inherit the land they use [17]. For affected communities, dams have widened gender disparities either by imposing a disproportionate share of social cost on women or through an inequitable allocation of the benefits generated. For instance, when the Mahawell dam in Sri Lanka was built, the prevailing rule which allowed women the independent right to co-own and control land was undermined by a new arrangement that allow the household to nominate one heir usually a son [18].

   7. Impact of Cultural Heritage

      Dams have adversely affected the cultural heritage of many communities through loss of cultural resources (temple, shrines, and sacred elements of the landscape, artifacts and buildings). The submergence and degradation of archeological resources (plants and animals remains, burial sites and archeological elements are other significant cultural impacts of dams. Dams can also cause loss of or damage of cultural heritage through land reclamation and irrigation project. During the construction of the Inanda dam in South Africa, remains of human bodies buried under the reservoir site were exhumed and all buried in one hole profoundly disturbing local communities [19]. The risk of submerging ancestral graves is one of the reasons the Himba people in Namibia opposed the planned Epupa dam [6].

   8. Health Related Impacts

      Environmental change and social disruption resulting from the construction and operation of large dams and the associated infrastructure developments such as irrigation schemes can have significant adverse health outcomes for local populations and downstream communities. Among the resettled, access to drinking water, health services and ability to cope with new social and physical environment determines health conditions. Numerous vector-borne diseases are associated with reservoir development in tropical areas. Schistosomiasis (or Bilharzias), for instance, spread through snails breeding in still or slow moving waters was a significant public health problem that emerged from many water development projects.

      Out of the 323 dams in Nigeria, 47 (15%) have been surveyed for the presence of local snail intermediate host species of schistosomiasis, while 11 were investigated for human infection. Findings shows that 20 (43%) of the 47 dams harbour the intermediate host of the disease. Human infection was recorded in 10 out of the 11 investigated for human infection [20]. Rift valley fever has also spread due to the presence of Aswan and Kariba dams and irrigation systems along the Blue Nile in Sudan [21]. Most reservoirs and irrigation projects undertaken in malaria endermic areas increase malaria transmission and disease. The increase was more pronounced for dams below 1900 meters of altitude and less pronounced above that altitude [22].

3. Dam Disasters In Nigeria

   There have been several cases of dam-related disasters in Nigeria displacing thousands of people and plunging them into poverty and destroying properties.

   1. Shiroro Dam

      Over 26 villages in Kede, Lakpma and Shiroro Local Government in Niger State were flooded by the waters from Rivers Niger and Kaduna in 2003. The flood displaced about 10,000 persons in Ketsho in Kede Local Government who were said to have moved to Kwara state, while other 13,500 persons in Lakpam and Shiroro were rendered homeless. In the affected areas, houses, property, farm produce and animals were destroyed by the flood which struck in the early hours of Saturday 11th September, 2003. The flood resulted from a downpour and

      release of excess water from the Shiroro Hydro-Electric Dam by the National Electric Power Authority (NEPA). The affected villages include Galadima Kogo, Gofa, Kusasun, Pai, Lagodo, Nakapinda and Karai. The people suffered for the sacrifice they made by releasing their land for the construction of the Shiroro Dam for the good of the nation. [23].

      Similarly in 1999 at least seven local government districts in the state were flooded when water from the Shiroro Dam was released. Thousands of houses and buildings in the state, including schools and hospitals were either destroyed or damaged in the disaster. Eight people were killed and 2,215 displaced in flooding in Kano State, in Northern Nigeria.

   2. Obudu Dam

      The Obudu Dam spillway was damaged by storm in July 2003 which resulted in fatal disaster that claimed over 200 houses, several farmlands, settlements and business concerns. The disaster was allegedly caused by the release of excess water from the Lagdo Dam in Cameroun, which overflowed Benue and Niger banks. Besides the release of excess water from Lagdo Dam, experts attributed the disaster to intensive and non-stop rainfall in Obudu on the fateful day for 16 hours. The rainfall recorded at the Obudu Dam meteorological station was 314.5mm, more than 15 years average rainfall for the peak months of July and September, which was not anticipated when the dam was constructed. The cumulative effect of these events led to the overflow of all water courses including the ones leading to Obudu Dam. The excessive flood discharge and load on spillway channel led to the failure of the dam.

      Then, the estimated cost of rehabilitating the dam and completing the outstanding works on the irrigation area was valued at about N350m (approximately $2.8m). The dam was commissioned in 1999 to provide water for irrigation to indigenes of the area that are predominantly farmers as well as serves recreational and tourism purposes. It was also constructed to create employment to the youths through fishing. The people forwarded an appeal to the government to urgently come to their rescue. They expressed the fear that if the spillway was not rehabilitated before the next rainy season, the entire Obudu may be taken-over by flood [24].

   3. Igabi Dam

      Property worth about N500 million ($3.9m) were destroyed while thousands of people were rendered homeless in Kaduna State when River Kaduna overflowed its banks and submerges several streets and housing estates. The flood was caused by the collapse of Igabi Dam. Affected by the flood ar Mammam Kotangora Estate, Kirgo Road extension, Kabala area and parts of Malali Estate. At the Mamman Kotangora Estate, household items including rugs, television sets, fridges, chairs, tables and other expensive electronics were damaged when water from the river submerged most of the houses there. Several mechanic workshops, grocery store and pharmaceutical shops were also submerged.

      At Kirgo area, apart from household items, maize and sugar cane farms were also destroyed. It was learnt that a manual irrigation system constructed by some farmers in the area made it possible for the river water to submerge places like Mamman Kotangora Estate and Kabala area. Apart from churches and mosques which were destroyed, the Nsukka town hall located at Kirgo Road extension was also affected.

      Some Reported Recent Dam Disasters in Nigeria

      August 30, 2012- Punch Newspapers reported Five women have so far delivered babies successfully, while 57 pregnant women have so far been registered in Internally Displaced People Camps in Adamawa State. The camps were set up for persons displaced by the flooding caused by the release of water from Lagdo Dam in Cameroon Republic.

   4. Eleyele Dam Disaster

      This was reported by African Outlook thus: Nigerian floods: Ibadan reflects on Eleyele dam tragedy. After six hours of torrential rain, the Eleyele dam, which provided drinking water to the Nigerian City of Ibadan could hold back the flow no longer.

   5. Gusau Dam Disaster

      Gusau dam collapsed on September 30, 2006 after heavy flooding. Forty persons were killed and approximately 500 homes were destroyed, displacing 1000 people.

   6. Warawa Dam Disaster

      • This took place on September 14, 20012. Numerous communities in Kano state were submerged following the collapse of the Warawa dam.

        Main causes of dam failure

        International special sign for works and installations containing dangerous forces Common causes of dam failure include:

        • Sub-standard construction materials/techniques (Gleno Dam)

        • Spillway design error (South Fork Dam, near failure of Glen Canyon Dam)

        • Geological instability caused by changes to water levels during filling or poor surveying (Malpasset).

        • Sliding of a mountain into the reservoir (Vaiont Dam not exactly a dam failure, but caused nearly the entire volume of said reservoir to be displaced and overtop the dam)

        • Poor maintenance, especially of outlet pipes (Lawn Lake Dam, Val di Stava Dam collapse)

        • Extreme inflow (Shakidor Dam)

        • Human, computer or design error (Buffalo Creek Flood, Dale Dike Reservoir, Taum Sauk pumped storage plant)

        • Internal erosion, especially in earthen dams.

        • Earthquake

          Deliberate dam failure

          A notable case of deliberate dam failure (prior to the Humanitarian Law rulings) was the British Royal Air Force Dambusters raid on Germany in World War II (codenamed "Operation Chastise"), in which three German dams were selected to be breached in order to impact on German infrastructure and manufacturing and power capabilities deriving from the Ruhr and Eder rivers. This raid later became the basis for several films.

          List of major dam failures

          Dam/incident	Year	Location	Details
          Marib Dam	575	Sheba, Yemen	Unknown (possibly neglect)

          Pantano de Puentes 1802 Lorca, Spain 608 deaths, 1800 houses and 40000 trees

          destroyed.

          Dale Dike 1864 Reservoir

          South Yorkshire, Defective construction, small leak in wall England, United grew until dam failed.

          Kingdom

          South Fork Dam 1889

          Johnstown, Pennsylvania, United States

          Blamed locally on poor maintenance by owners; court deemed it an "Act of God". Followed exceptionally heavy rainfall. Caused Johnstown flood.

          Wickenburg, Heavy snow and rain following public calls

          Walnut Grove Dam 1890 Arizona Territory, by the dam's chief engineer to strengthen

          United States the earthen structure.

          Dam/incident Year Location Details

          McDonald Dam 1900 Texas, United States Extreme current caused failure.

          Hauser Dam 1908 Helena, Montana, Heavy flooding coupled with poor

          Austin Dam 1911

          United States

          Austin, Pennsylvania, United States

          foundation quality

          Poor design, use of dynamite to remedy structural problems.

          Desná Dam 1916

          Desná, Austria-

          Hungary (now Construction flaws caused the dam failure Czech Republic)

          Lake Toxaway

          Transylvania

          Heavy rains caused the dam to give way.

          Dam 1916

          County, North Dam was later rebuilt in the 1960s Carolina

          Sweetwater Dam 1916 San Diego County, Over-topped from flooding

          California

          Lower Otay Dam 1916 San Diego County, Over-topped from flooding; 40 deaths

          California

          Gleno Dam 1923 Province of Poor construction and design

          Bergamo, Italy

          Llyn Eigiau dam and the outflow

          Contractor blamed cost-cutting in

          Dolgarrog, North construction but 25" of rain had fallen in

          also destroyed 1925 Coedty reservoir

          dam.

          Wales, UK

          preceding 5 days. This was the last dam failure to cause death in the UK to date (2010).

          St. Francis Dam 1928

          Valencia, California, Geological instability of canyon wall that Los Angeles could not have been detected with available County, United technology of the time, combined with

          States

          human error that assessed developing cracks

          as "normal" for a dam of that type.

          Nanty Gro 1942 Nanty Gro Valley, Destroyed during preparation for Operation

          Dam/incident	Year	Location	Details
          Reservoir in Wales Eder, Möhne Dams	1943	Wales Eder Valley, Germany	Chastise in World War II. Ruhr, Destroyed by bombing Chastise in World War II.

          Dam/incident	Year	Location	Details
          Reservoir in Wales Eder, Möhne Dams	1943	Wales Eder Valley, Germany	Chastise in World War II. Ruhr, Destroyed by bombing Chastise in World War II.

          during Operation

          Vega de Tera	1959	Ribadelago, Spain
          Malpasset	1959	Côte d'Azur, France

          Vega de Tera	1959	Ribadelago, Spain
          Malpasset	1959	Côte d'Azur, France

          144 deaths.

          Baldwin Hills 1963 Reservoir

          Geological fault possibly enhanced by explosives work during construction; initial geo-study was not thorough. Over 400 deaths.

          Los Angeles, Subsidence caused by over-exploitation of California, United local oil field

          States

          Spaulding Pond

          Norwich,

          6 deaths, more than $6 million estimated

          Dam (Mohegan 1963 Park)

          Connecticut, United damages States

          Vaiont Dam

          Mina Plakalnitsa, (Vratsa)

          Buffalo Creek

          Strictly not a dam failure, since the dam structure did not collapse and is still standing. Filling the reservoir caused

          1963	Italy	geological failure in valley wall, leading to 110 km/h landslide into the lake; water escaped in a seiche over the top of dam. Valley had been incorrectly assessed stable.
          1966	Vratsa, Bulgaria	A tailings dam at Plakalnitsa copper mine near the city of Vratsa failed. A total 450,000 cu m of mud and water inundated Vratsa and the nearby village of Zgorigrad,
          	which suffered widespread damage. The official death toll is 107, but the unofficial estimate is around 500 killed.

          1963	Italy	geological failure in valley wall, leading to 110 km/h landslide into the lake; water escaped in a seiche over the top of dam. Valley had been incorrectly assessed stable.
          1966	Vratsa, Bulgaria	A tailings dam at Plakalnitsa copper mine near the city of Vratsa failed. A total 450,000 cu m of mud and water inundated Vratsa and the nearby village of Zgorigrad,
          		which suffered widespread damage. The official death toll is 107, but the unofficial estimate is around 500 killed.

          West Virginia, Unstable loose constructed dam created by

          Flood 1972

          United States

          local coal mining company, collapsed in heavy rain

          Dam/incident Year Location Details

          Canyon Lake Dam 1972 South Dakota, Flooding, dam outlets flooded with debris.

          United States

          Banqiao and 1975 China Shimantan Dams

          Extreme rainfall beyond the planned design capability of the dam. Worst dam failure with more than 100,000 dead.

          Teton Dam 1976 Idaho, United States Water leakage through earthen wall, leading

          to dam failure.

          Laurel Run Dam 1977

          Johnstown, Pennsylvania, United States

          Heavy rainfall and flooding that over- topped the dam.

          Kelly Barnes Dam	1977
          Machchu-2 Dam	1979
          Wadi Qattara Dam	1979

          Kelly Barnes Dam	1977
          Machchu-2 Dam	1979
          Wadi Qattara Dam	1979

          Georgia, United Unknown, possibly design error as dam was

          States

          raised several times by owners to improve power generation.

          Morbi, Gujarat, Heavy rain and flooding beyond spillway

          India

          Benghazi, Libya

          capacity. Between 1,800 and 15,000 dead.

          Flooding beyond discharge and storage capacity damaged the main dam and destroyed the secondary dam in the scheme.

          Lawn Lake Dam 1982

          Rocky Mountain Outlet pipe erosion; dam under-maintained National Park, due to location

          United States

          Tous Dam 1982 Valencia, Spain

          Val di Stava Dam

          collapse 1985 Italy

          Poor maintenance and low margin for error in design; outlet pipes failed leading to pressure on dam.

          Lightning struck power system, turbines Upriver Dam 1986 Washington state, shut down. Water rose behind dam while

          United States

          trying to restart. Backup power systems failed, could not raise spillway gates in

          Dam/incident Year Location Details

          Perua Dam

          detonation 1993 Croatia

          time. Dam overtopped (rebuilt).

          Not strictly a dam failure as there was a detonation of pre-positioned explosives by retreating Serb Forces.

          Saguenay Flood 1996 Quebec, Canada

          Problems started after two weeks of constant rain, which severely engorged soils, rivers and reservoirs. Post-flood enquiries discovered that the network of dikes and dams protecting the city was poorly maintained.

          Meadow Pond 1996 New Hampshire, Design and construction deficiencies

          Dam

          United States

          resulted in failure in heavy icing conditions

          Opuha Dam 1997 New Zealand Heavy rain during construction caused

          failure, dam was later completed

          Vodní nádr 2002 Sobnov, Czech Extreme rainfall during the 2002 European

          Sobnov

          Republic

          floods

          Zeyzoun Dam 2002 Zeyzoun, Syria Failed 4 June 2002, killing 22 and affecting

          10,000.

          Ringdijk Groot- 2003 Wilnis, Netherlands Peat dam became lighter than water during

          Mijdrecht

          droughts and floated away

          North Carolina, Heavy rains caused earthen dam and bank

          Hope Mills Dam	2003
          Big Bay Dam	2004
          Camará Dam	2004
          Shakidor Dam	2005

          Hope Mills Dam	2003
          Big Bay Dam	2004
          Camará Dam	2004
          Shakidor Dam	2005

          United States to wash away

          Mississippi, United A small hole in the dam grew and

          States eventually led to failure.

          Brasil

          Pakistan Sudden and extreme flooding caused by abnormally severe rain, 70 deaths

          Taum Sauk 2005 Lesterville, Computer/operator error; gauges intended to

          Dam/incident Year Location Details

          reservoir Missouri, United mark dam full were not respected; dam

          States

          continued to fill. Minor leakages had also weakened the wall through piping.

          Campos Novos 2006 Campos Novos, Tunnel collapse

          Dam Brazil

          Gusau Dam	2006	Gusau, Nigeria
          Ka Loko Dam	2006	Kauai, Hawaii

          Gusau Dam	2006	Gusau, Nigeria
          Ka Loko Dam	2006	Kauai, Hawaii

          Heavy flooding

          Heavy rain and flooding. Several possible specific factors to include poor maintenance, lack of inspection and illegal modifications.

          Lake Delton 9 June Lake Delton, Failure due to June 2008 Midwest floods.

          2008

          Koshi Barrage 2008

          Wisconsin

          Kusha[disambiguation

          needed], Nepal Heavy rain

          Algodões Dam 27 May Piau, Brazil Heavy rain

          2009

          Situ Gintung Dam 2009 Tangerang,

          Indonesia

          Poor maintenance and heavy monsoon rain

          Kyzyl-Agash Dam 2010 Kazakhstan Heavy rain and snowmelt

          Hope Mills Dam 2010 North Carolina, Sinkhole caused dam failure

          United States

          Delhi Dam July 24, Iowa, United States Heavy rain, flooding.

          2010

          Niedow Dam August 7, Lower Silesian Heavy rain, over-topped from flooding

          2010 Voivodeship, Poland

          Ajka alumina plant October Hungary Failure of concrete impound wall on

          accident

          4, 2010

          alumina plant tailings dam.

          Dam/incident Year Location Details

          Kenmare

          October

          Resources tailings 8, 2010 Mozambique Failure of tailings dam at titanium mine. dam

          Fujinuma Dam March 11, 2011

          Dam in Campos de January

          Japan Failed after 2011 Thoku earthquake.

          Rio de Janeiro State, Failed after a period of flooding.

          Goytacazes, Brazil 4, 2012

          Brazil

          Ivanovo Dam February 6, 2012

          Biser, Bulgaria

          Failed after a period of heavy snowmelt. A crack in the dam went un-repaired for years. Eight people killed and several communities flooded.

          February

          Adana Province, A gate in the diversion tunnel broke after a

          Köprü Dam

          24, 2012

          Turkey

          period of heavy rain during the reservoir's first filing. The accident killed ten workers.

          Source: [2].

4. Results and Discussion

   This study shows that there are many dams existing in our country over the years. Moreover, many dam disasters including dam failures have occurred in the past. There is need to protect dams in our country. This country has witnessed many dam disasters including dam failures causing flooding that mostly led to loss of lives, properties and farmlands. Flooding is presently devastating most states of the country including Kogi, Bayelsa, Anambra, Benue, etc.

5. Conclusion

   Dam development in this country started many decades ago. These dams store water for various purposes including hydro power devlopment, irrigation, water supply, flood control, navigation, tourism, sanitation, etc.

   Inadequate attention is being paid to the issue of flooding and other disasters arising from dam projects in our country.

6. Recommendations

• Communities within flood plains should be protected against flooding by constructing adequate water drainage facilities to hold the flood water from causing havoc.

• Adequate caution should be employed when passing water through spillways during flood. This is to ensure that flood water doesnt cause problems to communities downstream of dams.

• Adequate dam height should be provided to hold the flood water to prevent water from overtopping the dam to avert possible dam failure. This will increase the quantity of water in the reservoir for various water uses.

• Dam design and construction should be handled by experts in dam projects since its failure leads to catastrophe, including loss of lives, houses, properties and farmlands.

• Dam-Reservoir facilities should be optimized by making it a multi- purpose facility to enable employing the great reservoir water for different water uses.

• The Federal Government of Nigeria should vote more money under ecological funds for taking care of all forms of natural disasters. This money should be made available to remedy these disasters when they come.

• More dams should be built in this country to enable us reap the enormous gains of dam- reservoir facilities.

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